diff --git a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_replication_layer.erl b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_replication_layer.erl
index c6fdc69aa..9330e0b1a 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_replication_layer.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_replication_layer.erl
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@
 
 %% Command. Each command is an entry in the replication log.
 -type ra_command() :: #{
-    ?tag := ?BATCH | add_generation | update_config | drop_generation,
+    ?tag := ?BATCH | add_generation | update_config | drop_generation | storage_event,
     _ => _
 }.
 
@@ -752,7 +752,7 @@ apply(
 -spec tick(integer(), ra_state()) -> ra_machine:effects().
 tick(TimeMs, #{db_shard := DBShard = {DB, Shard}, latest := Latest}) ->
     %% Leader = emqx_ds_replication_layer_shard:lookup_leader(DB, Shard),
-    {Timestamp, _} = assign_timestamp(timestamp_to_timeus(TimeMs), Latest),
+    {Timestamp, _} = ensure_monotonic_timestamp(timestamp_to_timeus(TimeMs), Latest),
     ?tp(emqx_ds_replication_layer_tick, #{db => DB, shard => Shard, ts => Timestamp}),
     handle_custom_event(DBShard, Timestamp, tick).
 
@@ -794,7 +794,7 @@ handle_custom_event(DBShard, Latest, Event) ->
         [{append, #{?tag => storage_event, ?payload => I, ?now => Latest}} || I <- Events]
     catch
         EC:Err:Stacktrace ->
-            ?tp(error, ds_storage_custom_even_fail, #{
+            ?tp(error, ds_storage_custom_event_fail, #{
                 EC => Err, stacktrace => Stacktrace, event => Event
             }),
             []
diff --git a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_bitfield_lts.erl b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_bitfield_lts.erl
index d05296a29..ebbcde17c 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_bitfield_lts.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_bitfield_lts.erl
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ drop(_Shard, DBHandle, GenId, CFRefs, #s{trie = Trie, gvars = GVars}) ->
 -spec prepare_batch(
     emqx_ds_storage_layer:shard_id(),
     s(),
-    [{emqx_ds:time(), emqx_types:message()}],
+    [{emqx_ds:time(), emqx_types:message()}, ...],
     emqx_ds:message_store_opts()
 ) ->
     {ok, cooked_batch()}.
@@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ prepare_batch(_ShardId, S, Messages, _Options) ->
     emqx_ds_storage_layer:shard_id(),
     s(),
     cooked_batch()
-) -> ok.
+) -> ok | emqx_ds:error(_).
 commit_batch(
     _ShardId,
     _Data,
diff --git a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_layer.erl b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_layer.erl
index df1253e1c..d9a0321b0 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_layer.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/src/emqx_ds_storage_layer.erl
@@ -225,13 +225,13 @@
     [{emqx_ds:time(), emqx_types:message()}, ...],
     emqx_ds:message_store_opts()
 ) ->
-    {ok, term()} | {error, _}.
+    {ok, term()} | emqx_ds:error(_).
 
 -callback commit_batch(
     shard_id(),
     _Data,
     _CookedBatch
-) -> ok.
+) -> ok | emqx_ds:error(_).
 
 -callback get_streams(shard_id(), _Data, emqx_ds:topic_filter(), emqx_ds:time()) ->
     [_Stream].
@@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ store_batch(Shard, Messages, Options) ->
             commit_batch(Shard, CookedBatch);
         ignore ->
             ok;
-        Error = {error, _} ->
+        Error = {error, _, _} ->
             Error
     end.
 
@@ -296,7 +296,7 @@ store_batch(Shard, Messages, Options) ->
     shard_id(),
     [{emqx_ds:time(), emqx_types:message()}],
     emqx_ds:message_store_opts()
-) -> {ok, cooked_batch()} | ignore | {error, _}.
+) -> {ok, cooked_batch()} | ignore | emqx_ds:error(_).
 prepare_batch(Shard, Messages = [{Time, _Msg} | _], Options) ->
     %% NOTE
     %% We assume that batches do not span generations. Callers should enforce this.
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ prepare_batch(Shard, Messages = [{Time, _Msg} | _], Options) ->
         case Mod:prepare_batch(Shard, GenData, Messages, Options) of
             {ok, CookedBatch} ->
                 {ok, #{?tag => ?COOKED_BATCH, ?generation => GenId, ?enc => CookedBatch}};
-            Error = {error, _} ->
+            Error = {error, _, _} ->
                 Error
         end,
     T1 = erlang:monotonic_time(microsecond),
@@ -319,7 +319,7 @@ prepare_batch(Shard, Messages = [{Time, _Msg} | _], Options) ->
 prepare_batch(_Shard, [], _Options) ->
     ignore.
 
--spec commit_batch(shard_id(), cooked_batch()) -> ok.
+-spec commit_batch(shard_id(), cooked_batch()) -> emqx_ds:store_batch_result().
 commit_batch(Shard, #{?tag := ?COOKED_BATCH, ?generation := GenId, ?enc := CookedBatch}) ->
     #{?GEN_KEY(GenId) := #{module := Mod, data := GenData}} = get_schema_runtime(Shard),
     T0 = erlang:monotonic_time(microsecond),
diff --git a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_replication_SUITE.erl b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_replication_SUITE.erl
index 04c57aa80..4707e6766 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_replication_SUITE.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_replication_SUITE.erl
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ opts(Overrides) ->
             n_sites => 1,
             replication_factor => 3,
             replication_options => #{
-                wal_max_size_bytes => 64 * 1024,
+                wal_max_size_bytes => 64,
                 wal_max_batch_size => 1024,
                 snapshot_interval => 128
             }
diff --git a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_test_helpers.erl b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_test_helpers.erl
index 3a0145199..288dba0c9 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_test_helpers.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_durable_storage/test/emqx_ds_test_helpers.erl
@@ -87,11 +87,12 @@ topic_messages(TestCase, ClientId) ->
 
 topic_messages(TestCase, ClientId, N) ->
     fun() ->
+        NBin = integer_to_binary(N),
         Msg = #message{
             from = ClientId,
             topic = client_topic(TestCase, ClientId),
             timestamp = N * 100,
-            payload = integer_to_binary(N)
+            payload = <<NBin/binary, "                                                       ">>
         },
         [Msg | topic_messages(TestCase, ClientId, N + 1)]
     end.
diff --git a/apps/emqx_utils/src/emqx_utils_stream.erl b/apps/emqx_utils/src/emqx_utils_stream.erl
index a38deceeb..8b6db8292 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_utils/src/emqx_utils_stream.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_utils/src/emqx_utils_stream.erl
@@ -164,6 +164,10 @@ repeat(S) ->
 %% specifies size of the "batch" to be consumed from the stream at a
 %% time (stream is the second tuple element). If element of the list
 %% is a plain stream, then the batch size is assumed to be 1.
+%%
+%% If `ContinueAtEmpty' is `false', and one of the streams returns
+%% `[]', then the function will return `[]' as well. Otherwise, it
+%% will continue consuming data from the remaining streams.
 -spec interleave([stream(X) | {non_neg_integer(), stream(X)}], boolean()) -> stream(X).
 interleave(L0, ContinueAtEmpty) ->
     L = lists:map(
diff --git a/apps/emqx_utils/test/emqx_utils_stream_tests.erl b/apps/emqx_utils/test/emqx_utils_stream_tests.erl
index 0ab3cdb70..fe340d3ee 100644
--- a/apps/emqx_utils/test/emqx_utils_stream_tests.erl
+++ b/apps/emqx_utils/test/emqx_utils_stream_tests.erl
@@ -165,6 +165,14 @@ interleave_test() ->
         emqx_utils_stream:consume(emqx_utils_stream:interleave([{2, S1}, {2, S2}], true))
     ).
 
+interleave_stop_test() ->
+    S1 = emqx_utils_stream:const(1),
+    S2 = emqx_utils_stream:list([a, b, c, d]),
+    ?assertEqual(
+        [1, 1, a, b, 1, 1, c, d, 1, 1],
+        emqx_utils_stream:consume(emqx_utils_stream:interleave([{2, S1}, {2, S2}], false))
+    ).
+
 csv_test() ->
     Data1 = <<"h1,h2,h3\r\nvv1,vv2,vv3\r\nvv4,vv5,vv6">>,
     ?assertEqual(